How Japanese Elementary School Teachers Are Being Rescued by Cooperative Learning and Tasks
By: Yuki Otsuki* and Tomoko Hashimoto
(* Usage of the first person in this article refers to the first author.)
English Education in Japanese Elementary Schools
In 2020, English was formally introduced as a mandatory subject in Japanese elementary schools. Prior to this, students participated in English activities that did not require grading. These activities, often considered enjoyable breaks from the regular curriculum, included games like bingo, singing songs, and watching videos. However, with the implementation of a formal curriculum, classes now use textbooks adopted based on official guidelines, the Course of Study, providing systematic language instruction that holds the promise of improving English proficiency.
In response to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) guidelines, which emphasize developing communicative competence for real-world language use, there has been a deliberate shift from the traditional grammar-translation method long used in secondary education. This transition offers substantial benefits, particularly in fostering the practical use of English within public education.
The Perspective of Teachers
From a teacher’s standpoint, several challenges emerge. As previously noted, English was introduced as a formal subject in primary schools only in recent years. Hence, when most primary school teachers obtained their teaching licenses, “English instruction” was not part of the curriculum. Instead, their training was in math, science, Japanese, etc. However, they must now learn elementary English teaching methodologies through on-site training and practice. Unfortunately, most of these teachers themselves experienced an English education focused on grammar-translation methods and preparation for high-stakes university entrance exams, which prioritized knowledge over practical use. Consequently, these teachers are now tasked with designing and evaluating English lessons aimed at developing communicative competence, a domain in which they may lack both experience and expertise.
Implementing Communicative Competence and Cooperative Learning
Given these conditions, how should teachers aim to develop communicative competence using textbook-based instruction? According to the Course of Study, which is a cross-curricular guideline, the emphasis should be on interactive, exploratory, collaborative, and deep learning. In this context, I decided to design communication tasks and implement cooperative learning as the teaching approach.
Overview of Communication Tasks and Cooperative Learning
Communication tasks or gengokatsudo in a Japanese context are structured activities that require students to use language meaningfully and purposefully (Takasugi, 2024). These tasks often simulate real-life scenarios, providing a context for students to practice speaking, listening, and interacting in English. Cooperative learning, on the other hand, involves students working together in small groups to achieve common goals, thereby fostering teamwork and mutual support (Johnson & Johnson, 2018).
In my experience, integrating communication tasks with cooperative learning has yielded positive outcomes. Students engage more actively and develop better interpersonal skills. They learn to negotiate meaning, support each other’s learning, and take responsibility for their contributions to group tasks. This approach not only enhances their language skills but also prepares them for real-world communication, aligning with MEXT’s guidelines for developing communicative competence. I feel these kinds of activities empower students, and help them to grow in areas other than just English.
The shift towards communicative competence in English education within Japanese elementary schools marks a significant step forward. While challenges persist, particularly for teachers adapting to new methodologies, the benefits for students are clear. By experiencing well-designed, theory-based practices, students are better equipped to use English effectively in real-life situations. Moving forward, it will be crucial to support teachers with adequate training and resources to sustain this progress.
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) and Language Activities
The four key features of tasks in Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) are as follows: (a) meaning is primary; (b) there is some kind of gap; (c) learners are required to use their own linguistic and non-linguistic resources to communicate; and (d) there is some outcome (Ellis, 2003; Shintani, 2014). The Course of Study’s language activities overlap with these features, and I designed tasks based on textbooks adopted in the local area. First, during the unit planning stage, I conducted a needs analysis to understand if the children grasped common expressions used in a restaurant. In class, they created scenarios in their native language to practice scriptwriting and then implemented the practical use of English by ordering in a restaurant setting. Finally, the completed English script was presented as a poster, providing an outcome for the activity. Students incorporated spontaneous expressions not in the script.
For language activities, students determined specific aspects within the given setting (restaurant), such as the topic (ordering food) and social roles (shop clerk). This structured the task to align with real-world language use. Table 1 is an excerpt from three lessons out of a total of eight class hours.
Table 1. Scriptwriting for the restaurant chapter.
Time | Activity | Details |
1 | Scriptwriting and play rehearsal | Learning formulaic expressions and creating an original script in their L1 in groups. |
2 | Translation and rehearsal | Translating and rehearsing in groups |
3 | Presentation | Each group performed a short play with an original script. |
Cooperative Learning in Practice
Despite the emphasis on cooperative learning in the Course of Study, there remains ambiguity between group activities and cooperative learning. It is questionable whether the theory is being effectively integrated into practice. Johnson and Johnson (2009, 2018) state that there are five principles to cooperative learning that are effective in fostering a supportive and engaging environment. By integrating these principles into language learning activities, teachers can enhance student engagement, facilitate language practice, and promote both academic and social development. They are:
- positive interdependence;
- individual accountability;
- face-to-face promotive interaction;
- interpersonal and small group skills;
- and group processing.
Positive interdependence occurs when students perceive that their success is linked to the success of their group members. This principle fosters a sense of teamwork, as students understand that they must work together to achieve common goals. In a second language acquisition setting, this could mean that each student’s language development benefits from the collective efforts of the group, encouraging collaboration and mutual support.
Individual accountability involves each student being responsible for their own learning and contributions to the group. This principle ensures that all group members are actively participating and that the workload is evenly distributed. In language learning, this might involve each student being responsible for mastering specific vocabulary or grammar points that they then teach or demonstrate to their peers.
Face-to-face promotive interaction involves students actively supporting and encouraging one another’s learning within the group. This principle emphasizes face-to-face interactions where students engage in discussions, provide feedback, and help each other understand concepts. In a language learning context, this could manifest as students correcting each other’s pronunciation, practicing dialogues, or explaining language rules to peers.
Interpersonal and small group skills involve interpersonal skills such as communication, conflict resolution, and teamwork. These are essential for group functioning and ensure that interactions remain constructive and focused on the learning objectives. In a language classroom, social skills might include practicing polite requests, active listening, and turn-taking in conversations, which are crucial for both language development and effective collaboration.
Lastly, group processing involves reflecting on the group’s functioning and effectiveness. This principle encourages groups to discuss what went well in their collaboration and what could be improved in future tasks. It helps students become more aware of their learning processes and the dynamics within the group. In a second language setting, group processing might involve reflecting on how well language goals were met during an activity and how group interactions could be adjusted to better support everyone’s learning.
Cooperative learning
Johnson and Johnson(2009) propose three types of cooperative learning: informal cooperative learning groups, formal cooperative learning groups, and cooperative base groups. Informal cooperative learning groups involve students working together for a maximum of one class period. Formal cooperative learning groups have students working together for one class period to several weeks. Cooperative base groups last for longer periods of time, such as a year.
Out of the three types, we made use of formal cooperative learning groups. This structured approach to cooperative learning integrated tasks into practice as outlined in the Course of Study.
By adopting these principles of cooperative learning, we ensured that the tasks aligned with the Course of Study’s emphasis on interactive and deep learning, ultimately enhancing students’ communicative competence and interpersonal skills.
Practical Implications
As was mentioned before, Japanese elementary school teachers were not trained to teach foreign languages, so suddenly being told to teach children English shook our confidence. We knew that the traditional methods we studied in high school—grammar-translation and vocabulary memorization—would not work with children and we did not know how to solve this problem. The answer came by learning about cooperative learning and task-based teaching, and now, most of us using these approaches feel our learners are more successful and engaged in learning English. These approaches came to our aid. We have to bear in mind, however, that the classroom is complex and dynamic in nature, and tasks need to be adjusted while ensuring that they are truly relevant to the children’s real world settings. Prioritizing supportive learning for the children, I want to emphasize the importance of an approach to English education that designs tasks in which children can engage personally and experience mediation through collaboration with their peers, as a teaching method to foster the communication skills required by the Course of Study.
References
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). An educational psychology sucess story: Social interdependence theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher, 38(5), 365–379. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09339057
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2018). Cooperative learning: The foundation for active learning. In S. M. Brito (Ed.), Active learning: Beyond the future (pp. 1–10). IntechOpen.
MEXT (2017). Shogakko gakushu shido yoryo heisei29nen kokuchi kaisetsu [The Course of Study for elementary school foreign language education in 2017) https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/03/18/1387017_011.pdf
Shintani, N. (2014). Using tasks with young beginner learners: The role of the teacher. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 8(3), 279-294.
Takasugi, T. (2024) Shikoryoku handanryoku hyogenryoku wo Sodateru tasuku gengokatsudo [Tasks and language activities to develop thinking, judgment, and expression skills] . Meiji Tosho.
Yuki Otsuki, PhD is an assistant professor at Meisei University in Tokyo, Japan, where she teaches in the teacher education program for elementary and secondary school educators. Her research interests include second language acquisition, oral fluency, interaction, and assessment of young learners.
Tomoko Hashimoto, PhD is an associate professor at Tokyo Future University in Tokyo, Japan, where she teaches English to pre-service teachers. Her recent research focuses on investigating factors contributing to children’s verbal output of English funded by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI).